The term race refers to the categorization of humans into groups that are generally viewed as distinct within a society. The term began to be used in the 17th century and initially referred to physical characteristics. Later, it was expanded to include national, linguistic and religious groups with little or no visible differences.
Today, genetic studies have refuted the concept that distinct human races exist in the modern world and have shown that most people share more similarities than differences. The idea of separate human races is a social construct, meaning that it has no biological validity. Despite this, most government agencies still collect data on race and ethnicity, and many surveys ask individuals to indicate their race or ethnicity.
Ethnicity is more complex than race and can involve cultural expressions of identity such as language, religion, family patterns, history, and traditions. People of similar geographic origin, ancestry or tribal heritage may be grouped together in different ways depending on culture and history. These groups are often defined by a particular region, such as the United States, the Caribbean or Africa.
In general, people who belong to the same ethnic group tend to live in the same neighborhoods and have similar incomes. These factors have contributed to racial segregation in the United States and elsewhere, but have also allowed for economic progress in some communities. For example, black Americans in the middle class are now more likely than whites to own homes. This is largely the result of efforts by people in those communities to improve educational opportunities for their children.
However, a large number of issues remain in the U.S. relating to racism and health disparities by race. These include a number of differences in health outcomes, such as rates of hypertension and the likelihood of getting a kidney transplant, between whites and African Americans. Other racial/ethnic-based disparities in the United States include disparities in poverty, educational achievement, and criminal justice outcomes.
As a result of the scientific advances described above, it is now widely accepted that race as it is currently defined in most countries has no biological validity and should be categorized as a sociological construct. For this reason, many scholars have now come to view race as a cultural phenomenon that emerged from specific attitudes and beliefs imposed on different populations in the wake of Western European conquests beginning in the 15th century.
The question of whether there are any slight genetic advantages or disadvantages associated with a given race is still under debate. However, there is now overwhelming evidence that a person’s environment has a greater effect on their long-term health outcomes than their genes.
Although some scientists believe that pure races do not exist, others continue to research the possible existence of such things as subspecies and phenotypes, or a grouping of physical traits that have no connection to one another. However, this work is hampered by the lack of funding, resources and political will to study such issues.